Complex Adaptive System
A Complex Adaptive System (CAS) is a dynamic network of interacting agents whose collective behavior is not easily predictable from its individual components. CAS are characterized by nonlinearity, emergence, self-organization, and resilience. John H. Holland describes them as systems where numerous agents interact, adapt, or learn. Examples include Earth’s climate, the human brain, and social organizations. In complex environments, cause and effect relationships can only be deduced in retrospect.