Higher-Order System (System Science)

Benson, A. R. (2023). “What are higher-order networks?” SIAM Review, 65(2), 251-272.

In system science, mathematics, and network theory, a higher-order system is one where behavior arises from interactions involving three or more elements simultaneously, or from nested subsystems forming higher levels of organization. Such systems require frameworks like hypergraphs or higher-order differential equations to capture their multidimensional structure. They are essential for modeling collective phenomena and emergent behaviors not reducible to pairwise interactions.